Shared Decision-Making共享式決策

HOW IS THE PRINCIPAL'S ROLE CHANGED IN SDM?

校長角色在SDM中如何轉變？

SDM does not replace the principal as a decision-maker on all issues, Bauer emphasizes. Instead, the principal becomes "part of a team of decision makers" and will likely make decisions on issues outside the scope of the SDM group or committees. The principal plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining SDM.

SDM並不是取代了校長作決策的能力，相反地，校長變成決策團隊中的一部分，透過SDM團隊或委員會來進行決策，校長扮演的是建立及維持SDM的重要角色。

David Stine (1993) describes the principal's new role as an organizer, adviser, and consensus builder, who takes advantage of the group's thinking. Bauer calls principals who utilize SDM "internal consultants" who provide the staff with current research and advice. Others emphasize the facilitative aspects, such as finding space and time for staff to meet, helping groups work effectively together, and minimizing distractions and obstacles for SDM participants. The principal helps a school become ready for SDM by promoting a noncompetitive, trusting climate, creating opportunities for staff to express ideas, and placing a priority on professional development.

學者David則描述了校長的新角色，校長如同組織者、顧問及建立共識者，是一位採納團隊思考的人。Bauer則稱使用SDM的校長，是能夠提供工作團隊當前的研究和諮詢的內部顧問。其他強調能促進的方面像是為工作團隊會面而尋找地點和時間，幫助組織有效地共同工作，並為SDM的參與者盡量減少干擾和障礙。校長藉由非競爭性、任信氣氛、讓員工有發聲機會及優先協助專業發展，幫助學校準備就緒使用SDM。

WHAT FACTORS ARE IMPORTANT FOR SDM'S SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION?

那些是SDM的成功實施因素？

Several important guidelines have been suggested by SDM pioneers:

下列是由實施SDM的先驅所提供的幾個重要的指導方針：

* Start small, go slowly. Evidence on the adoption of innovations, say Gene Hall and Gary Galluzzo (1991), suggests that SDM will be most successful if carried out in small steps rather than "wholesale changes" foreign to your school and participants. Analyze your school's needs, then adapt selected processes that meet your local situation; additional components can be added when the staff is ready.

「由小部分做起，並且應當慢慢來」，透過小步驟的實施而非全面性的改變，SDM將是最成功的。應先分析學校的需求，然後當工作團隊已準備就緒後，選擇符合學校情況的實施流程。

* Agree on specifics at the outset. There is no single "right" way to do SDM; it depends on what you want from it. Many schools develop one decision-making team or council; others use several groups or committees. Unless mandated, decide who will be involved (Will you include students, parents, community members, and outside consultants?), the size of the group (Stine suggests nine to seventeen members), and how to ensure that the group will be representative. Determine how decisions will be made (majority vote or consensus) and who will make the final decisions on issues.

「一開始就要決定好實施的細節」，實施SDM沒有唯一正確的方式，它取決於你想如何實施，許多學校發展單一決策小組或委員會，而有些學校則有多數。要決定是誰參與其中(包括學生、家長、社區成員和外部諮詢者)？，小組的規模要多大(學者Stine建議九到十七名成員)？以及如何確保該團隊能具有代表性？決定要如要作出(多數表決或達成共識)？及誰做出最後的決定？

* Be clear about procedures, roles, and expectations. Lack of clarity leads to lack of progress with SDM. Staff members need to understand what steps and procedures are to be followed before decisions are made. Allen and Glickman learned that "unclear processes created confusion that fragmented people's actions," while clear processes empowered participants. Groups also need to understand whether they are a decision-making body or an advisory one; it is demoralizing for groups to think they are making decisions only to have their decisions vetoed. At both her schools, Meadows found it useful to spell out the SDM process in writing.

「要有明確的程序、角色和期望」。SDM若不明確則會導致缺乏進展，團隊成員應在制定決策之前，需要瞭解哪些步驟和程序要先遵循。不明確的流程會導致人們行動的混亂，團隊也需要瞭解它們是否是一個決策機構或諮詢機構之一，團隊若只有在投票時才會作決策的能力，這會使得團隊感到洩氣。

* Give everyone a chance to get involved. Decisions made by administrative appointees as opposed to elected or volunteer representatives may be perceived as top-down decisions. Volunteer positions or task forces give people the opportunity to participate as much or as little as they want. "The more accessible the process was to all teachers," say Allen and Glickman, "the more positive feeling they had for the process."

「讓每個人都有機會參與決策」。相對於經由民選或志願者代表的決策，行政授權的決策被視為一種由上而下的決定。然而志願者或工作團隊的力量給予人們彈性的參與機會，教師越是能夠參與決策就越是對決策流程有正向的感覺。

* Build trust and support. If mistrust and apprehension exist between administrators and teachers, SDM is not easily accepted. Don't push solutions on the group or override decisions delegated to SDM teams. Lack of hierarchical support can also lead to failure. "If the culture outside the school does not change," say Hall and Galluzzo, "those inside the school will find it difficult to take charge of decision making."

「建立信任和支持」。如果行政管理者和教師之間存在著不信任和恐懼，SDM就越是不容易被接受。不要在團隊中強行推動解決方案，或是重寫SDM團隊的決策。沒有科層的支持，也可能導致失敗。

資料來源：http://www.ericdigests.org/1994/shared.htm

Critical Issue: Building a Committed Team 關鍵議題：建立一個有承諾的團隊

Kent Peterson, professor of educational administration, University of Wisconsin-Madison, challenges administrators to support team-building and collaboration by providing time and resources, in order to reap the benefits effective teams can bring to schools (audio comment, 313k). Excerpted from a presentation given at NCREL's Urban School Leadership Mini-Conference in July 1993. A text transcript is available.

Kent Peterson是美國威斯康辛大學麥迪遜分校的教育行政教授，他挑戰行政管理者藉由時間及資源的提供來支持團隊建設及合作，進而獲得有效能的團隊來對學校產生益處。(這是一份在研討會上的發表，部分摘錄於此，原文大意強調行政管理者與教師之間的合作十分重要，教師往往十分注意雙方的合作與資源的分配)

Transformational leadership skills can help in developing such high-performing teams. Leaders of school transformation must be able to inspire, motivate, and support teams. Engaged and high-performing teams thrive in a "learning organization," where colleagues support each other in learning, risk-taking, innovation, and change (Senge, 1990).

轉型領導技巧能幫助發展中的高效能團隊，學校轉型領導者必須能夠激勵、鼓舞和支持團隊。被雇用的高績效團隊茁壯成長為學習型組織，而學習型組織中同事能互相支持學習、冒險、創新和變化。

GOALS: School leaders (including administrators, teachers, and parents) should help nurture and build highly committed teams for accomplishing school activities and goals, which may include school improvement planning, site-based management, budget and personnel decisions, and implementing programs or plans.

目標：學校領導(包括行政管理者、教師及家長)應該幫助培養和建立為了實現學校活動和目標的高承諾團隊，其中可能包括學校改善計劃，現場本位管理、預算和人事決策、實施方案或計劃。

Former kindergarten teacher from Joyce Elementary School in Detroit, Diana Langlois, talks about how her principal supports team building and learning at the school and the benefits that have resulted (QuickTime slide show, 487k). Excerpted from NCREL's urban school leadership case studies (1992). A text transcript is available.
前幼稚園教師Diana則談論她的校長如何去支持團隊建立和學校，以及它的好處。(這是一份摘錄自NCREL城市學校領導的個案研究，她的校長Brown先生與教師及家長一同為學校的建設和學生的學習努力，和同事一同旅行、親自送孩子上學、為學校提出改善計劃等)

Effective team functioning requires finding time, selecting team members, empowering team members, providing training in relevant skills and knowledge, developing shared goals, and facilitating team functioning - particularly in the early stages of the team's work.
有效能的團隊運作需要花費時間，選擇團隊成員，賦予團隊成員權力、提供相關技能和知識的培訓、發展共同的目標、促進團隊運作-尤其是在初期階段的團隊工作。

IMPLEMENTATION PITFALLS:

實施的隱憂

The school staff and administration may not have the skills, knowledge, and capacities for effective teamwork.

學校工作成員及行政管理者對於有效能的團隊工作可能沒有足夠的技能、知識和能力。

Kent Peterson, professor of educational administration, University of Wisconsin-Madison, discusses the challenges of collaboration and the need for coaching (audio comment, 210k). Excerpted from a presentation at NCREL's Urban School Leadership Mini-Conference in July 1993. A text transcript is available.

The team may not share clear goals or purposes, and therefore defining specific goals will be important.

Hargreaves, Fullan, and others (cited in Fullan, 1993) note that teams often face issues that can decrease the effectiveness of the team and specifically its ability to make decisions: (1) the time trade-offs in decisionmaking (team decisionmaking can take time away from working directly on classroom planning, curriculum, and instructional activities), (2) problems of "groupthink" and pressure to conform, and (3) the potential for increased conflict over decisionmaking.

Kent Peterson教授曾論述合作之挑戰及指導的需求。

團隊可能沒有清晰的目標或目的，因此確定具體目標將是重要的。

Fullan等學者指出團隊經常面臨團隊低效能的議題，而且特別是團隊本身決策的能力：

(1)   權衡時間的決策(團隊決策可能需要一段時間從工作中抽離在教室規劃、課程及教學活動)

(2)   順應集體思考的問題及壓力

(3)   在決策過程中的潛在衝突

Without adequate team training and preparation, it is unlikely that team(s) will work effectively to develop and realize a shared vision.

Katzenbach and Smith (1993) list the following requirements for building effective teams:

Teams must be small enough in the number of members.

Members must have adequate levels of complementary skills.

The team must have a truly meaningful purpose.

The team must have a specific goal or goals.

The team and its members must establish a clear approach to the team's work.

Members must have a sense of mutual accountability.

Without team leadership (as opposed to traditional top-down leadership), teams will be unproductive.

如果沒有足夠的團隊訓練和準備，這是不可能讓團隊工作有效地展並實現共同願景。

學者卡曾巴赫和史密斯則列出了有效團隊建立的要求：

團隊應要小而美，成員要精簡

團隊成員間的能力要有一定互補的能力水準

團隊要有一個真正有意義的目的

團隊必須有一個具體目標或多項目標

團隊及當中的成員必須建立一個明確的辦法以達成團隊工作

成員必須有意識的相互負起責任

如果沒有團隊領導(乃相對於傳統中上對下的領導)，那麼團隊將毫無意義

Another potential barrier is individual resistance to working in teams.

DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW: Few people would deny that teams can be highly effective. But some believe that teams must face enormous obstacles before they can become effective in schools. Some teachers have never worked on teams and actually became teachers so that they could work independently. In other cases, staff and administrators have not been trained to cope with the special challenges of working in teams and practicing shared decisionmaking.

另一個潛在障礙是在團隊工作中的個人阻力

不一樣的觀點：

絕大多數的人都認為團隊可以非常有效能。但有些人認為，團隊必須面對巨大的障礙才能成為有效能的學校。有的老師從來沒有在團隊中工作，但是實際成為教師後他們就能獨立工作，在其他情況下，行政人員和管理者未經過訓練就要處理團隊工作的特殊挑戰，以及要共享決策。

總結：

學校沒有團隊工作是無法成功達成教育的目標或理念的，而有效能的團隊來自於團隊內部人員會團隊的承諾，如何讓團隊成員建立承諾有賴團隊領導者的智慧，從文章中提到領導者必須要了解團隊合作的方法及利用學習型組織，並且了解團隊合作的缺失與障礙，才能達成有效能的團隊工作。

資料來源：
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educatrs/leadrshp/le200.htm

School-Based Management. 學校本位管理

School-Based Management.    學校本位管理

School-based management (SBM) is an alternative to the typical pattern of school district governance that centralizes authority in the district office. As John Lindelow and James Heynderickx (forthcoming) define it, SBM "is a system of administration in which the school is the primary unit of educational decision-making." Responsibility for certain decisions about the budget, personnel, and the curriculum is placed at the school level rather than the district level, thereby giving especially principals but also teachers, students, and parents greater control over the educational process.
學校本位管理有別於集中權力由教育主管機關治理的典型模式，學者約翰及詹姆斯認為學校本位管理是以學校為最主要單位而進行決策的一種行政管理系統。而學校要負責一些重要的決定，像是預算、人事及課程，都是以學校的層級作為主體而非學區層級，因此特別是校長，還有教師、學生及家長都能一同為教育的歷程把關。

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES OF SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT?
學校本位管理有哪些優點？

A task force convened by the American Association of School Administrators, the National Association of Elementary School Principals, and the National Association of Secondary School Principals (1988) identified nine advantages, several of which are listed below. School-based management * formally recognizes the expertise and competence of those who work in individual schools to make decisions to improve learning * gives teachers, other staff members, and the community increased input into decisions * improves morale of teachers * focuses accountability for decisions * brings both financial and instructional resources in line with the instructional goals developed in each school * nurtures and stimulates new leaders at all levels * increases both the quantity and the quality of communication Each school's flexibility to meet the needs of its students leads to greater creativity in the design of programs.
由美國學校管理者協會、全國小學校長協會及全國中學校長協會於1988年共同確立了九項有關校本管理的優點，其中一些要點如下：
正式承認學校決策者的專業知識及工作能力能促進學習。
讓教師及其他行政人員和社區人士投入決定。
提高教師的士氣。
著重在決策上的績效。
依各校的所要發展的教學目標來投入資金及教學資源。
培育及刺激在各級學校的領導者。
增加溝通質與量。
每所學校的彈性能符合學生的需求，在課程的設計上能產生更大的創造力。

Budgeting also becomes markedly more realistic. Lindelow and Heynderickx state that schools no longer need to lobby with the central office for funds. Instead of requesting more money than is needed (with the hope of receiving a lesser amount that is sufficient to meet needs), schools receive a "lump sum," based on a formula, that they can spend as they see fit. Parents and teachers become more aware of the cost of programs, the school's financial status, and its spending limitations.
預算也變得更為透明且實際，學者認為學校不再需要向中央辦公室尋求大量的資金補助，而是有多少需求拿多少錢，學校會得到一個基於公式所運算出來，他們所可以花費且認為合宜的預算總額。家長和教師將會更加意識到學校的成本花費及財務狀況，還有開支的限制。

資料來源：http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9210/based.htm

校長檔案：校長短缺--學校應該做什麼來吸引新一代的學校領導者？

From the Principal Files: The Principal Shortage -- What Can Schools Do to Attract a New Generation of School Leaders?
校長檔案：校長短缺--學校應該做什麼來吸引新一代的學校領導者？

From time to time, Education World updates and reposts a previously published article that we think might be of interest to administrators. We hope you find this recently updated article to be of value.
有時候，Education World更新並回顧一些先前認為校長有趣的出版文章，我們希望讀者能找到有價值的新文章。

Education World asked our "Principal Files" principals to suggest some ideas that might help grow the shrinking pool of qualified school leaders. Today, we share their responses! Included: Read their replies -- some common sense, others provocative!
所以今日Education World從過去的校長檔案中，找出其中的校長，請他們給予一些幫助校長的意見。

"The Correlates of Effective Schools research found that the principal was the single most-important contributing factor to the success of an effective school," Alan Seay, principal at Iowa Park (Texas) High School, told Education World. "That's why it's critical for schools to be able to attract good people to the principalship -- and to keep them there."
從「有效能學校之相關因素」研究中，可從結論得知，校長本人是在達成有效能學校中最重要的貢獻因子。
How can school systems make the principal's job more manageable? How can they attract educators who might make exceptional principals? Education World posed those questions recently to our Principal Files principals. They had plenty of ideas -- common sense ideas and provocative ones too!
那麼學校的系統如何使校長工作更易於管理，或吸引特殊的校長呢？訪談校長的結果是，他們會有很多的想法，包括一般的想法及挑釁的想法。
Did you miss yesterday's Education World article, The Principal Shortage -- Why Doesn't Anybody Want the Job? In that story, Education World P-Files principals shared their thoughts about the reasons for the principal shortage. They discussed many of the important issues school principals face today. Not surprisingly, those issues also happen to be some of the biggest obstacles to recruiting educators who might consider administration!
從過去的文章「校長短缺--為什麼沒人要當校長？」得知很多重要的原因，他們討論許多原因都是今日校長所面臨的重要議題。而很多原因已經發生成為校長招聘的重大阻礙。

OF COURSE, MONEY IS AN ISSUE
薪水就是一項原因
Raising salaries for school administrators is a must if schools are to make the principalship more attractive to a new generation of school leaders. "Increased pay would send a message that society values the work of the principal," Chris Rose, principal at Plymouth School in Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia (Canada), told Education World.
"I know salary does not make a good leader, much less a great leader," said Betty Peltier, principal at Southdown Elementary School in Houma, Louisiana, "but teachers with leadership ability see the long hours and the extent of the principal's job and opt for other avenues of leadership. Each year, the gap between the principal's salary and the teacher's salary narrows."
假如學校能讓校長吸引更多新世代的學校領導者，那麼校長就應該加薪，一位校長說「給校長加薪會傳達給社會一個訊息，讓社會知道校長是重要的人物」。而另一位校長說「錢沒辦法造就一個好的領導者，更不用說偉大的領袖。但是有領導能力的教師經歷長時間和某程度的校長工作，以及其他途徑的領導方式。每一年校長和教師薪水的差距是愈來愈小。

The principal shortage might be a good thing, according to principal Anthony Pallija Jr. "It's nice to be in demand for a change!" he said. "We are the CEOs of our buildings," Pallija, principal at North Canton Hoover High School in North Canton, Ohio, told Education World. "We run million-dollar schools, with hundreds of staff and thousands of students, parents, and community members."
一位校長認為校長短缺是件好事，他說「這是改變的良好機會，因為我們猶如學校的執行長！」而另一位校長也說「我們經營百萬美金的學校，當中有著成千上百的教職員師、學生、家長和社區成員。」

Pallija's point: Principals ought to be compensated more like the CEOs they are!
"All three levels of government -- federal, state, and local -- need to make a concerted effort to raise the compensation of principals so that it is competitive with that of other mid-level managers," added Alan Seay.
Pallija校長指出：校長應當被視為如企業的執行長般獲得相等的薪水！
各級政府都應致力於提升校長的薪水，使校長有別於其他的中階管理者。

"It's about time educators started getting the kind of pay that athletes do," said Nancy Ondrasik, assistant principal at Beatty Warren Middle School in Warren, Pennsylvania. "We train the children; then they look up to athletes who engage in all the types of behavior that we have trained them not to do! And who gets the big money?"
Revising job descriptions so school secretaries become office managers and raising their salaries is one solution several P-Files principals advocated. "That would relieve the principal of much of the administrative trivia that crowds the desk each day," suggested Helene Dykes, principal at Tijeras Creek Elementary, in Rancho Santa Margarita, California.
Raising the salaries of support staff is just the first step, however. The P-Files principals see many other ways school districts and states can help relieve the principal shortage.
修改工作內容並提升學校助理的薪水是其中一種解決辦法，一位校長說「加薪並重新調整工作，可以減輕例行事務的負擔」但是提高員工薪水只是第一步而已，下面我們還會看到其他可以減輕校長短缺問題的方法

資料來源：http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin197_b.shtml