The School Culture學校文化

Implications
啟示
The informal rules that govern behavior in schools appear to play a significant role in the institutionalization of school improvement efforts. Those norms that facilitate change must be widely internalized in order to encourage movement toward the goal of changing the school. Not only teachers, but students as well need to internalize the norms of the school improvement culture.

Norms that encourage introspection and critical inquiry about the strengths and weaknesses of the school are needed. These norms encourage criticism in order to highlight areas that need improvement. When criticism is silenced, change efforts are hindered. An expectation that information, resources and training will be provided to address problem areas creates the norm of continuous improvement needed for lasting change. A clear vision of the school when the change is successfully implemented and how implementation will occur needs to be developed among all those in the school. This shared vision provides support for the change effort and relieves anxieties. Participation in decision making by all those involved is another aspect of the school improvement culture.

Change is a threat to a culture.
The introduction of planned change challenges the status quo and forces staff members to compare their current cultural content with the innovation (Rossman, Corbett, & Firestone, 1988; Sarason, 1982). Cultural change is also anxiety producing because the assumptions that stabilize the world must be given up (Schein, 1985). When the existing norms of the school are those that encourage introspection, improvement, and involvement, change is encouraged. Encouraging the development of these norms is an important aspect of leadership for change. Change is a threat to a culture.
非正式的規範對於制度化的學校有著重要作用，為了鼓勵學校朝向變革的目標邁進，這些非正式規範必須要獲得廣泛的認同，不僅是教師，學生也必須內化這些改善學校文化的非正式規範。鼓勵反省與批判學校優劣處的規範是必要的，這些規範鼓勵批判是為了改進，沒有批判的聲音就沒有改善，故提供資訊、資源與培訓將使得規範得以持續解決問題而不是限制。明確的學校目標、共同願景及參與式決策都是讓學校文化持續改善的方法。

Relationships
關係
Just as the attitudes and beliefs of persons both inside and outside the school affect change and the norms of the school, relationships between persons and groups of persons are part of the school culture that can either facilitate or impede change. The relationships teachers have with each other, their students, and the community affect change. In like manner, the relationships between students and their peers, teachers, and the school as a whole can help or hinder school improvement efforts. This section examines these relationships. Relationships between the principal and others is examined later in this paper.

Teacher relationships with teachers. The ways in which the physical surroundings in schools contribute to isolation of teachers was discussed earlier in this paper. Developing collaborative work cultures helps reduce the professional isolation of teachers, allows the sharing of successful practices and provides support. Collaboration raises morale, enthusiasm, and the teachers' sense of efficacy and makes teachers more receptive to new ideas (Fullan, 1991; Simpson, 1990; Smith & Scott, 1990).

Collegiality, which according to Barth (1990), is frequently confused with congeniality, is difficult to establish in schools. Little (1981) describes collegiality as a norm exhibited through four specific behaviors: Adults in schools who have a collegial relationship talk about practice. They also observe each other engaged in the practice of teaching and administration. Colleagues engage together in work on curriculum by planning, designing, researching, and evaluating it. Finally, collegiality is exhibited when adults teach each other what they know about teaching, learning, and leading.
學校成員間的關係一樣會影響學校文化，接下來就開始探討學校間不同主體的關係影響作用。
首先我們談到教師與教師間的關係，本文前面有提到物理設施會影響教師間的隔閡，而形塑共同的工作文化則有助於教師專業發展合作，例如共享成功案例、提供教學支持。而合作進一步提高士氣、積極性與教師效能感，使教師更容易接受新的想法。成員共治(Collegiality)是一項有效的作用，教師能相互分享教學、學習和領導的技巧。

Barth (1990) suggests that a number of outcomes may be associated with collegiality:
Decisions tend to be better. Implementation of decisions is better. There is a higher level of morale and trust among adults. Adult learning in energized and more likely to be sustained. There is even some evidence that motivation of students and their achievement rises, and evidence that when adults share and cooperate, students tend to do the same.�The relationships among adults in schools allow, energize, and sustain all other attempts at school improvement. Unless adults talk with one another, observe one another, and help one another, very little will change. (p. 31)

Collegial relationships facilitate change because change involves learning to do something new, and interaction is the primary basis for social learning. New meanings, new behaviors, new skills, and new beliefs depend significantly on whether teachers are working as isolated individuals (Goodlad, 1984; Sarason, 1982) or are exchanging ideas, support, and positive feelings about their work (Fullan, 1991). Deal and Kennedy (1982) reinforce the idea that those interested in change must be aware that peer group consensus will be the major influence on acceptance or willingness to change. People will change more readily as a result of a desire to have personal ties with others.

As the antithesis of collegiality, faculty factions undermine efforts to successfully implement change by sidetracking, stalling, or stopping the change process (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984). The need for collegiality bears consideration by those who would initiate change. Schlechty and Cole (1991) note that the ways in which changes are introduced may breed rivalry among teachers. Thus an important leadership responsibility of leaders who work within the cultural perspective is supporting collegial interactions between teachers (Sergiovanni & Corbally, 1986).
成員共治會促進學校文化的改變，因為社會學習的主要基礎就是藉由互動學習新事物，教師是否是孤立，或者是否有意見與情感上的支持與交換，皆會影響他們的行為、技能與觀念。

Student relationships with teachers. The body of literature addressing students as players in school improvement is noticeably thin. As Fullan (1991) points out, students are typically seen only as the potential beneficiaries of change rather than as participants in the process of change. This traditional view of students is reflected in the observations of Fine (1991). The principal of the high school in Fine's study seemed to believe that merely telling students what to do, without their involvement, would compel their compliance. Due to their findings regarding the close relationship between teachers and student attitudes, Firestone and Rosenblum (1988) agree that the role of high school students in school improvement activities needs to be evaluated. Students are rarely informed regarding plans in spite of the fact that the plans cannot be carried out successfully when students are not committed to cooperate with the plan, and do not know what to do or how to do it. (Fullan, 1991)

Fullan (1991) explains how students can exercise negative power to reject what is being imposed. High school students often negotiate a "live and let live" relationship with teachers that allows some students to be left alone as long as they do not disrupt classroom life. This presents a barrier to change by protecting the status quo. Effective change in schools involves as much cognitive and behavioral change on the part of students as for anyone else (Fullan, 1991).

Firestone and Rosenblum (1988) found in their study of ten urban high schools that teacher and student commitment are mutually reinforcing. When teachers demonstrate respect, high expectations, and support for students, students respond to them in positive ways. In the same way, teachers' commitment is influenced by the response they get from students.

Wilson and Corcoran (1988, cited in Fullan, 1991), in a study of 571 effective secondary schools, showed how school context creates "conditions of teaching" that influence "learning environments" for students (p. 176). "Teacher expectations influence student behavior, and expectations vary for different types of students" (Fullan, 1991, p. 177). Some teachers blame students for difficult classroom situations. These beliefs are reflected in actions such as displaying an "attitude" to students, abrupt responses to students, and less detailed explanations (Firestone & Rosenblum, 1988). Students' commitment to the school is reduced, Firestone and Rosenblum found, when they recognize that they are not respected. According to Fullan (1991), "at-risk students are more likely to find themselves in such situations" (p. 175). Bryk and Thum (1989) found, in their study of the High School and Beyond data base, that absenteeism is less prevalent in schools where teachers are interested in, and interact with, students and where there is an emphasis on academics "within an environment that is safe and orderly" (p. 377).
接下來談到學生與教師的關係。文獻指出學生在學校改善的過程中扮演的角色影響力微乎其微，因為學生僅僅是被當作潛在的受益者而非參與者。Fine的研究指出學生僅被告知規範而不能參與，對學生形成壓迫。學生很少被告知學校計畫的內容，而就算知道學校的政策也無法改變事實，只能被動承諾配合學校。
學生經常談論到與教師的“相處之道”，教師寧可讓一些學生停學也不要讓他們擾亂課堂。這種現況就是改變學校文化的障礙。
Firestone與Rosenblum的研究發現，教師與學生之間的承諾是相輔相成的，當教師對學生有正向期望並支持學生時，學生就會以積極的方式回應。而教師承諾也因學生的回應而反應給學生。所以學校教師與學生應強調互動，建立良好的正向教師期望，讓學生感受學校是安全而有秩序的環境。

Student peer relationships.
學生同儕的關係
At-risk youth share with all students the need for group membership, the need for positive relationships with adults, the need to acquire skills and knowledge, and the need to develop a sense of competence (Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). "Minority students in non-urban schools may develop their self-esteem and perceive their [ability to control situations] in ways that work against their acceptance of school values and participation in important school activities" (Houston, 1991,p. 65). These students feel confident in their ability to achieve goals established by peers who share the same culture. According to Houston (1991), this is contrasted with a perception among minority students that the school's values have little worth and the students have little ability to control or have an impact on positive outcomes in school.

Development of a feeling of belonging to a group is actively sought by all students (Purkey & Smith,1983; Cuban, 1989). According to Deal (1985), a well documented result of peer relationships is the effect of subcultural membership on educational outcomes. Student leaders, or heroes, significantly affect the scholastic tone of a school -- and subsequently, student behavior and performance (Deal, 1985). Taylor (1989) found that gang subcultures that engage in drug trafficking for enormous profits cause education to have limited appeal to many students.
邊緣學生需要分享團隊中的成員關係，也需要正向的成人關係，需要技能與知識、需要發展競爭的意念，根據研究顯示，學校文化對於少數族群的學生的自我效能及自我調節有很大的影響，然而學生本身建立的文化相對於學校文化卻很少能去影響並產生正向積極的成果。所有的學生都積極尋求這種感受的發展，這可以稱之為一種次文化，這種次文化的表現深入地影響了學校的教育，像是學生的領袖或者是學生所認為的“英雄”。

School, teacher and student -- A community of caring. Teachers and students need to believe they are being treated with decency and fairness by those at other levels (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Firestone & Wilson, 1991). When many of their personal and professional needs are satisfactorily met through their work environment, teachers are able to transmit to students a sense of interest and caring for their academic endeavors and their personal lives. In schools with a strong community sense, teachers feel less isolated, have more social support, and are more likely to find help from colleagues with work-related problems. Teachers can also establish and find value in attachment to students and communicate to them their belief in the importance of academic work (Bryk & Driscoll, 1988).

A school context that forms a sense of community is necessary to promote the cognitive and emotional growth of students (Purkey & Asby, 1988; Smey-Richman, 1991). This context is noncompetitive and emphasizes a personal and caring relationship with teachers who are empathetic to students. Druian and Butler's (1987) study found that a family atmosphere in a school will reduce the likelihood that students reject the school. Successful school programs have in common "a model of community, an extended family where achievement is important and so is caring for one another" (Wehlage, 1988, p. 31).
當個人需求和職業需求能符合他們的工作環境，教師就能夠傳達給學生正向的回饋，並且維護他們的學術事業和個人生活，透過學校文化的建立，教師不再有孤立的感，而有更多的社會支持。學校是需要形成社群意識以增進學生的情感與認知，社群意識並非是競爭的，而是強調個人的關懷，研究發現，成功的學校課程有一個共同的社群意識，那就是互相關懷。

Care should be taken, however, to avoid the negative effects of what Miller, Leinhardt and Zigmond (1988) describe as accommodation. They define accommodation as a concern for student needs that is reflected in the administrative processes that govern the school. Allowing students to "buy back" unexcused absences by attending an afterschool program in order to pass a course or simplifying curriculum so that students will have less difficulty are cited as examples of accommodation. Negative side effects that may occur from accommodation are students' expectations that accommodations will always be made, a lack of active student engagement with the content of instruction and increased student boredom and apathy (Miller, Leinhardt, & Zigmond, 1988).

Parent, community and school relationships. The lack of strong school/community partnerships inhibits high performance. Schools where parents and teachers are supportive of each other and have close relationships acquire a more community atmosphere (Bryk & Driscoll, 1988). Parents need to be involved as co-teachers in their children's education. To isolate the school from the broader community overlooks this need for a sense of mutual purpose and partnership (Pallas, et al., 1987).
但是要注意的是來自負面的影響，過度強調關懷而沒有講求學習成就反而讓學生對於教學的內容興緻缺缺，增加了學生的厭倦和冷漠。
而最後談到家長、社區和學校的關係，學者認為家長需要共同參與子女的教育，家長和社區對於學校教育都有共同的目的和意義，是一同努力的夥伴關係。

Implications
啟示
Collegial relationships in the school facilitate change. These relationships assist in learning the new practices of the school improvement effort and reduce isolation. If teachers choose not to participate in collegial relationships, or decision making, school improvement initiatives will not enjoy sustained implementation. The creation and nurturance of a school culture that encourages and supports these types of cooperative relationships falls on those who lead the school improvement effort.

The relationships between students and teachers and students and their peers can facilitate or impede change. When teachers are interested in students and demonstrate respect for them, a community of caring is nurtured. This community sense reduces isolation and alienation discussed in earlier sections as a factor that impedes change. When many students feel this sense of community, their need for positive relationships with adults and group membership may be satisfied in ways that mesh the student culture with the school culture in positive ways. A connection with the broader community outside the school is also needed to support the school improvement culture.
共治的關係促使學校改進，改善上述的關係有助於新的實踐與改善並減少隔閡，如果教師不參與學校事務，那麼學校是不能改進的，建立和維護學校文化能使得合作關係得到支持並得以改善學校。而教師和學生間的關係及學生同儕間的關係也是會促進並改變學校文化，透過關係的改善，學生文化和學校文化將能以正向積極的方式發展。

資料來源：http://www.sedl.org/change/school/culture.html